As we go through our lives, we spend a third of that time sleeping. Although this time does not amass to anything consciously productive, it is a crucial time for the proper recovery and relaxation of our bodies. Without sleep, we spend our waking hours in a state where our productivity is less than optimal (no matter what a college student cramming for an exam would tell you).
This blog looks at some of the factors that can affect this crucial period of our lives and how it can be positively or negatively modulated.
If you ever wore a fitness watch with sleep tracking capabilities to bed, you may see something akin to the graph below.
Your body cycles between four different categories of sleep: Awake, Light (stages 1 and 2), Deep (stage 3), and REM (or Rapid Eye Movement). During REM sleep, which happens multiple times at night, we tend to dream.
Most sleep trackers will give you the time you slept, and even analyze if your sleep was good or not. However, the ultimate judge of this activity is our attentiveness and energy the next day.
Insomnia is simply the inability to fall or to stay asleep. As some of us may know from prior experience (again most likely in college), drinking too much alcohol can have a sedative effect. So if acute insomnia hits, we may be tempted to get that nice old bourbon out with the hope that a glass would make us fall asleep faster. This is partly true – but there is a caveat.
Your sleep stages may be disrupted depending on what time you drink. Alcohol can make us fall to sleep faster, even taking us to stage 3, but at the detriment of REM sleep.
Once the alcohol starts to wear off, we end up with an increase in REM sleep (also known as REM rebound). Although dreaming is very subjective, it has been reported in some circles that dreams after consuming a lot of alcohol can be “interesting”.
Alcohol, as well as various prescribed sleeping pills such as Valium, Xanax, Ambien, and Lunesta, act on a very crucial ion channels in the brain known as gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA Receptors).
These receptors act as the primary inhibitory mechanism in nervous system. When activated by the neurotransmitter GABA, they act by “relaxing the nerves,” allowing the body to fall asleep. Sedatives such as alcohol and sleeping pills enhance the activity of GABA receptors, facilitating entry into sleep.
However, these sedatives can also be habit-forming. This is well attributed to alcohol and benzodiazepine-based drugs such as Valium and Xanax, which have several other side effects beyond the scope of this blog.
When a drug enhances the effect of a receptor, it is acting as a positive modulator. Alcohol and most sedatives fall into this class, but so do simple aromatics such as lavender.
Lavender essential oil contains a fragrance component called linalool, which likely acts on the GABA receptors by mildly enhancing their activity. Because of this, lavender can also slightly affect our REM sleep. Anything that positively enhances your GABA receptors can make you relaxed and eventually groggy.
Sometimes too much of a good thing is a bad thing. Idiopathic hypersomnia is a disease that causes excessive daytime sleepiness even after a good night sleep. Patients feel that sleep is not restoring their levels of attentiveness, and report that they feel as if they are “in a fog.” They may have great difficulty waking up from sleep or naps, feeling that their sleep was not productive to their wellbeing.
A recent study demonstrated that some cases of idiopathic hypersomnia can be due to the existence of an increased positive modulator acting upon GABA receptors. This was proven by applying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients to cells expressing the GABA receptors. When the receptors were subjected to CSF, a marked increase in their activity was observed. The link to the study is below:
Modulation of vigilance in the primary hypersomnias by endogenous enhancement of GABA(A) receptors
Dr. Andrew Jenkins recently demonstrated this research using an automated patch system, IonFlux Mercury HT. You can view his webinar below:
Sleep is a complex and necessary state in our lives that is vastly misunderstood. Although taken for granted, its disruption (whether insomnia or hypersomnia) can affect our wellbeing and decrease our quality of life. When our sleep is affected, we may inadvertently reach for a common sedative like alcohol to aid in sleeping. Sometimes these sedatives are mild and all around us (e.g., lavender). In either case, consciously or unconsciously, we all value the quality of our sleep.
Ali Yehia has a Ph.D. in Cardiac Electrophysiology from McGill University. He has been involved in ion channel screening using Automate Patch Clamp since 2006. He joined Fluxion Biosciences in 2012, where he developed ion channel assays and IonFlux Mercury systems. He was the Chief Scientific Officer at Fluxion before moving to Cell Microsystems as the new Senior Director of the IonFlux product.
In the ongoing battle against antibiotic-resistant bacteria, or “superbugs,” scientists are constantly seeking innovative tools to understand the mechanisms of resistance and develop effective treatments. One such groundbreaking technology is shear flow systems, which have emerged as game-changers in microbiological research. By simulating the dynamic conditions of bacteria’s natural environments, such as the human body or food processing, shear flow systems provide unique insights into bacterial behavior and resistance mechanisms that traditional static methods simply cannot achieve. In this blog post, we’ll explore the benefits of using shear flow systems to combat antibiotic resistance and develop next-generation therapies.
Antibiotic resistance is a complex phenomenon influenced by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer, and the formation of biofilms. Traditional laboratory methods often fail to capture the dynamic nature of these processes, leading to incomplete or misleading results. Shear flow systems address this limitation by providing a more realistic environment for bacterial growth and interaction. Here’s how:
1. Mimicking Real-World Conditions
In the human body, bacteria are rarely in a static state. They are constantly exposed to fluid flow, such as blood circulation or urine flow, which influences their behavior and resistance mechanisms. Shear flow systems can replicate these conditions, allowing researchers to study how bacteria respond to antibiotics under realistic physiological conditions. This is critical for understanding how resistance develops and persists in vivo. This benefit was recently highlighted in a webinar presented by Dr. Katharina Richter, a microbiology researcher from the University of Adelaide in Australia. Using a high-throughput BioFlux Shear Flow System, Dr. Richter and her team were able to test 3 different methods of superbug treatments under physiological conditions.
2. Studying Biofilm Formation and Resistance
Biofilms—structured communities of bacteria encased in a protective matrix—are a major contributor to antibiotic resistance. Biofilms are notoriously difficult to treat because they shield bacteria from antibiotics and the immune system. Shear flow systems enable researchers to study biofilm formation in real time, observing how bacteria adhere to surfaces, form microcolonies, and develop resistance under flow conditions. For example, using a BioFlux, Dr. Richter was able to leverage high-resolution imaging to obtain unprecedented insight into the biofilm killing and prevention efficacy of a copper and diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC) combination nanoparticles¹. The group is currently investigating the use of a Cu-DDC infused gel that can be injected into wounds that are at high risk for chronic infection, such as hernia.
The study of biofilm communities presents unique challenges in experimental design and analysis. While mixed bacterial populations offer fascinating insights into microbial interactions and community dynamics, accurately characterizing and investigating these complex systems has previously required sophisticated and tedious technical approaches. Here, we will discuss advances in technology that have helped to simplify and streamline polymicrobial investigations.
Throughout the last decade, a trend for growing and assaying biofilms under shear flow has gained traction among microbiologists. The rationale for investigating biofilms under flow is multi-dimensional. A recent Cell Microsystems survey asked why microbiologists are using shear flow found that the top responses were:
Of the scientists surveyed, 40% indicated that they use a BioFlux Shear Flow System. This system provides unique advantages over other methods to induce shear stress, such as slide-based parallel plate flow chambers and benchtop rockers.
BioFlux uses microfluidic channels embedded onto the bottom of standard-sized 6, 24, or 48-well plates to create isolated and independent flow chambers where user-defined wall shear stress is initiated and maintained by digitally controlled air pressure. This not only simplifies the setup and experimental processes but also ensures that experiments are contained and do not contaminate the shear flow system.
Although shear flow has been thoroughly demonstrated to improve the biological relevance of biofilm investigations1, an often overlooked aspect of biofilm physiology is the significant role that multicellular aggregates play in biofilm formation2. When investigating Pseudomonas aeruginosa, it has been demonstrated that multicellular aggregates lead to faster biofilm formation and enhanced resistance to antimicrobials and immune responses3. In addition, multispecies microbial aggregates have been shown to dominate single cells in human saliva4. Together, these data show that aggregates are important areas of investigation because they are more likely to represent physiological biofilm formation and growth.
